Digital Intimacy/Dependency

References

American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. (2026). AAMFT code of ethics. https://www.aamft.org/AAMFT/web/Action-Advocacy/Code-of-Ethics-New.aspx aamft.org

Anthropic. (2025, April 24). Exploring model welfare. https://www.anthropic.com/research/exploring-model-welfare anthropic.com

Business Insider. (2026). Him: Life with my AI boyfriend [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKQbArT36AU

Chiu, H.-C., & Foote, J. (2026). Chatting with confidants or corporations? Privacy management with AI companions. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 31(4), Article zmag014. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmag014 Oxford Academic

De Freitas, J., Oğuz-Uğuralp, Z., Uğuralp, A. K., & Puntoni, S. (2026). AI companions reduce loneliness. Journal of Consumer Research, 52(6), 1126–1148. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaf040 Oxford Academic

Fang, C. M., Liu, A. R., Danry, V., Lee, E., Chan, S. W. T., Pataranutaporn, P., Maes, P., Phang, J., Lampe, M., Ahmad, L., & Agarwal, S. (2025). How AI and human behaviors shape psychosocial effects of extended chatbot use: A longitudinal randomized controlled study (Version 2) [Preprint]. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2503.17473 arxiv.org

Hennepin County. (2022, December 14). Hennepin County land and water acknowledgement and tribal flag lending library. https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/MNHENNE/bulletins/33c7b4e content.govdelivery.com

Hertlein, K. M., & Springer, P. (2026). Artificial intelligence in couple and family therapy: Introduction of the AI competencies. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 52(2), Article e70121. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.70121 PubMed

Hertlein, K. M., & Twist, M. L. C. (2018). Attachment to technology: The missing link. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 17(1), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332691.2017.1414530 oasis.library.unlv.edu

IBM Technology. (2023, November 10). The 7 types of AI—and why we talk (mostly) about 3 of them [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFZ-rQ8eeR8

International Energy Agency. (2025). Energy and AI. https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-and-ai IEA

Kuang, J., Pope, A. L., & Zhang, Y. (2026). Psychotherapists’ trust, distrust, and generative AI practices in psychotherapy: Qualitative study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 28, Article e88932. https://doi.org/10.2196/88932 PMC

McArthur, N., & Twist, M. L. C. (2017). The rise of digisexuality: Therapeutic challenges and possibilities. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 32(3–4), 334–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2017.1397950 Get Access

McDowell, T., Knudson-Martin, C., & Bermúdez, J. M. (2023). Socioculturally attuned family therapy: Guidelines for equitable theory and practice (2nd ed.). Routledge. Routledge

Metropolitan Council. (2025, April 22). Metro update: More bus service, Met Council candidate interviews, restoring land and water. https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/MNORGMETC/bulletins/3dc40cc content.govdelivery.com

Native Governance Center. (2021). Beyond land acknowledgment: A guide. https://nativegov.org/resources/beyond-land-acknowledgment-a-guide/ Native Governance Center

Office of the Surgeon General. (2023). Our epidemic of loneliness and isolation: The U.S. Surgeon General’s advisory on the healing effects of social connection and community. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf

Skeide, K. (2026). Artificial intelligence companionship, loneliness, and relational health in emerging adults [Manuscript submitted for publication].

Strachan, J. W. A., Albergo, D., Borghini, G., Pansardi, O., Scaliti, E., Gupta, S., Saxena, K., Rufo, A., Panzeri, S., Manzi, G., Graziano, M. S. A., & Becchio, C. (2024). Testing theory of mind in large language models and humans. Nature Human Behaviour, 8(7), 1285–1295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01882-z Princeton University

Stryker, C. (2021, October 6). What are large language models (LLMs)? IBM. https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/large-language-models IBM

SXSW. (2023). Esther Perel on the other AI: Artificial intimacy | SXSW 2023 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSF-Al45hQU SXSW 2023

Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Turkle, S. (2026). Artificial intimacy: Who we become when we talk to machines. Little, Brown and Company. Hachette Book Group

Twist, M. L. C., & McArthur, N. (2020). Introduction to special issue on digihealth and sexual health. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 35(2), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2020.1735176

United Nations Environment Programme. (2025, November 13). AI has an environmental problem. Here’s what the world can do about that. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/ai-has-environmental-problem-heres-what-world-can-do-about unep.org

Yang, F., & Oshio, A. (2025). Using attachment theory to conceptualize and measure the experiences in human-AI relationships. Current Psychology, 44, 10658–10669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-07917-6 Springer

Videos to watch

Business Insider. (2026). Him: Life with my AI boyfriend [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKQbArT36AU

Darling, K. (2018, September). Why we have an emotional connection to robots [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/kate_darling_why_we_have_an_emotional_connection_to_robots TED Talk

IBM Technology. (2023, November 10). The 7 types of AI—and why we talk (mostly) about 3 of them [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XFZ-rQ8eeR8

SXSW. (2023). Esther Perel on the other AI: Artificial intimacy | SXSW 2023 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSF-Al45hQU SXSW 2023

Turkle, S. (2012, February). Connected, but alone? [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/sherry_turkle_connected_but_alone TED Talk

Hikikomori: Recommended resources

Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R. (2019). Hikikomori: Multidimensional understanding, assessment, and future international perspectives. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 73(8), 427–440. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12895 Wiley Online Library

Kato, T. A., Kanba, S., & Teo, A. R. (2020). Defining pathological social withdrawal: Proposed diagnostic criteria for hikikomori. World Psychiatry, 19(1), 116–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20705 Wiley Online Library

Saitō, T. (2013). Hikikomori: Adolescence without end (J. Angles, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press. (Original work published 1998). https://www.upress.umn.edu/9780816654598/hikikomori/ upress.umn.edu

Teo, A. R., Chen, J. I., Kubo, H., Katsuki, R., Sato-Kasai, M., Shimokawa, N., Hayakawa, K., Umene-Nakano, W., Aikens, J. E., Kanba, S., & Kato, T. A. (2018). Development and validation of the 25-item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ-25). Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 72(10), 780–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12691 PubMed

Teo, A. R., & Gaw, A. C. (2010). Hikikomori, a Japanese culture-bound syndrome of social withdrawal? A proposal for DSM-5. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 198(6), 444–449. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181e086b1 Oregon Health & Science University

AI and human relationships: Recommended resources

Chiu, H.-C., & Foote, J. (2026). Chatting with confidants or corporations? Privacy management with AI companions. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 31(4), Article zmag014. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmag014 Oxford Academic

De Freitas, J., Oğuz-Uğuralp, Z., Uğuralp, A. K., & Puntoni, S. (2026). AI companions reduce loneliness. Journal of Consumer Research, 52(6), 1126–1148. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaf040 Oxford Academic

Fang, C. M., Liu, A. R., Danry, V., Lee, E., Chan, S. W. T., Pataranutaporn, P., Maes, P., Phang, J., Lampe, M., Ahmad, L., & Agarwal, S. (2025). How AI and human behaviors shape psychosocial effects of extended chatbot use: A longitudinal randomized controlled study (Version 2) [Preprint]. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2503.17473 arxiv.org

Hertlein, K. M., & Springer, P. (2026). Artificial intelligence in couple and family therapy: Introduction of the AI competencies. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 52(2), Article e70121. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmft.70121 PubMed

Yang, F., & Oshio, A. (2025). Using attachment theory to conceptualize and measure the experiences in human-AI relationships. Current Psychology, 44, 10658–10669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-025-07917-6 Springer

Philosophy, ethics, and human-machine relationships: Recommended resources

Coeckelbergh, M. (2020). AI ethics. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/12549.001.0001 MIT Press

Danaher, J., & McArthur, N. (Eds.). (2017). Robot sex: Social and ethical implications. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262036689.001.0001 Oxford Academic

Gunkel, D. J. (2012). The machine question: Critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/8975.001.0001 MIT Press

Gunkel, D. J. (2018). Robot rights. MIT Press. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262038621/robot-rights/ mitpress.mit.edu

Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books.